Weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation
The Articles of Confederation had major flaws:
- Ineffective taxation: Congress couldn't tax directly, only asking states for money. This left the national treasury empty, with Revolutionary War debts unpaid.
- Commerce regulation: Regulating interstate and international commerce was impossible. States imposed tariffs on each other and fought over borders. Britain ignored the Treaty of Paris due to unpaid pre-war debts.
- Lack of executive branch: There was no executive branch to enforce laws or make states cooperate.
- No national court system: The absence of a national court system left no way to settle disputes between states.
- Amendment difficulties: Amendments required unanimity, and passing laws needed a 9/13 majority. This led to stagnation and few laws being passed.
These issues caused conflicts between states and financial instability. The nation was more a collection of rival states than a unified country.

Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists
After the Articles of Confederation failed, the Founding Fathers created the Constitution. This sparked debate between Federalists and Anti-Federalists.
Federalists like Hamilton, Madison, and Jay wanted a strong central government. They distributed the Federalist Papers to promote their views.
Anti-Federalists opposed giving too much power to a central body. Writers like "Brutus" and "Federal Farmer" published critiques in newspapers. Patrick Henry also spoke out against the Constitution.
Key Arguments:
- Anti-Federalists feared the Constitution would erode individual freedoms and states' rights.
- Federalists argued a strong central government was needed for stability, settling war debts, and defending against foreign threats.
- Anti-Federalists demanded a Bill of Rights to protect against tyranny.
James Madison drafted ten amendments to address Anti-Federalist concerns, helping secure ratification from skeptical states.
The resulting Constitution blends a federal structure with protections for individual liberties, shaped by the heated debates of 1787.1

The Great Compromises
The Constitutional Convention of 1787 saw several key compromises:
- The Great Compromise: Resolved representation issues.
- Small states wanted equal representation
- Large states wanted population-based representation
- Roger Sherman proposed a bicameral legislature:
- Senate (equal representation)
- House of Representatives (population-based)
- The Three-Fifths Compromise: Addressed slavery in representation and taxation.
- Southern states wanted to count enslaved people for representation but not taxation
- Compromise: each enslaved person counted as three-fifths of a person for both purposes
- The Slave Trade Compromise: Gave Congress power to ban slave importation, but not until 1808.
- Delayed addressing the moral issue of slavery
- Slavery persisted for nearly another century
These compromises were controversial but deemed necessary to form a unified nation. They shaped ongoing debates and legal interpretations in American history.2
Commerce and Taxation Powers
The Commerce Clause in the Constitution gave Congress power to regulate interstate and international commerce, creating a common economic framework. This centralized authority on commerce prevented economic conflicts between states that had occurred under the Articles of Confederation.
The Constitution also granted Congress taxation power through the Taxing Clause at the start of Article I, Section 8. This solved a major issue from the Articles of Confederation, where Congress lacked direct taxation ability and had to request funds from states. The new power allowed Congress to collect taxes from individuals and businesses to pay debts, fund defense, and promote general welfare.
Debates occurred over the extent of taxation power, with Hamilton favoring broad authority and Madison concerned about overreach. Supreme Court cases like United States v. Butler (1936) and NFIB v. Sebelius (2012) further defined the scope of Congress's taxation power.
The Sixteenth Amendment in 1913 expanded Congress's power by allowing income taxes without apportioning them among states. Overall, the commerce and taxation clauses unified the states economically and provided stable federal funding.

The Whiskey Rebellion
The Whiskey Rebellion of 1791 pitted new federal authority against rural individualism. Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton implemented a whiskey tax to raise revenue, angering western Pennsylvania farmers who relied on whiskey for trade.
The rebellion escalated as follows:
- Protests began peacefully
- Riots broke out
- Tax collectors were attacked
- President Washington led a 13,000-strong militia
- Rebels dispersed before the militia arrived
The event tested the limits of federal power versus individual liberty – a recurring theme in American history. It demonstrated the government's ability to enforce taxation, but also highlighted tensions over centralized authority.

Modern Interpretations of the Commerce Clause
Modern Supreme Court rulings have greatly expanded the scope of the Commerce Clause. In Wickard v. Filburn (1942), the Court ruled that even wheat grown for personal use could be federally regulated due to its potential impact on the national market.
Gonzales v. Raich (2005) further extended this logic, allowing federal regulation of marijuana grown for personal medical use under state law. The Court held that such local cultivation could influence the nationwide drug market.
A recent lawsuit by the Buckeye Institute challenges federal bans on home alcohol distilling, arguing the Commerce Clause has been stretched beyond its original intent. The case questions whether the government could potentially regulate any personal activity that might affect commerce.
"These interpretations and challenges highlight ongoing debates over the limits of federal power under the Commerce Clause versus state and individual rights."

In the end, the most crucial takeaway is the delicate balance between federal authority and individual liberties. This ongoing struggle shapes our nation's identity and will continue to do so as we face future challenges.