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Founding Fathers and Native Americans

Founding Fathers' Views on Native Americans

Thomas Jefferson saw Native Americans as enemies or allies politically, and as subjects of intellectual curiosity. He hoped for peaceful coexistence, with Native Americans adopting Anglo-American culture.

George Washington engaged with indigenous peoples through diplomacy and military action. He saw the need for strong federal governance, contrasting Jefferson's optimism about self-governance.

Washington and Congress negotiated treaties but often failed to enforce boundaries due to settlers pushing westward. This led to skirmishes and military responses.

James Madison and Washington shaped federal policies affecting Native Americans. In 1786, Congress admitted to encroachments on Creek and Cherokee lands, but promised to strive for peace "consistently with the justice and dignity of the nation."

Benjamin Franklin admired some Native American practices, but still supported policies leading to their mistreatment.

Frontier settlers frequently violated treaty boundaries. Franciscan missionaries like Junรญpero Serra aimed to convert and 'civilize' natives, using methods now seen as brutal.

Native Americans often resisted, with leaders like Tecumseh and Joseph Brant defending their lands. Congress typically responded with increased military presence.

The Founding Fathers' policies led to the erosion of Native American sovereignty and the spread of colonial dominance, despite constitutional promises of liberty and justice.

Portrait of Thomas Jefferson with a thoughtful expression, Native American artifacts in the background

Impact of the American Revolution on Native Americans

The American Revolution forced Native tribes to choose sides between the British and colonists. The Mohawk sided with the British, while some tribes like the Oneida supported the rebels.

The aftermath of the war was devastating for Native Americans. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 ignored their interests. Washington's administration pushed for westward expansion, displacing Native peoples.

Deceptive Land Treaties

  • Often signed under duress
  • Contained misleading terms
  • Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1784) and Treaty of Fort McIntosh (1785) forced tribes to cede vast territories

Displacement disrupted Native American cultures and social structures. Jefferson's presidency continued policies of displacement and cultural eradication.

The Revolution's aftermath saw increased use of genocidal tactics under the guise of "expansion" and "civilization." Native Americans faced pressure to assimilate or face annihilation.

The ideals in the Constitution contradicted the treatment of Native Americans, exposing a double standard in the moral compass of the early United States.

Depiction of Native American warriors choosing sides during the American Revolution

Treaties and Broken Promises

Treaties were used to control and displace Native American tribes. The Treaty of Ft. Laramie (1868) promised the Black Hills to the Lakota Nation, but was annulled when gold was discovered.1

Early treaties with Southern tribes were often ignored as settlers encroached on Native lands. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 promised Native consent for land taking, but was not enforced.

"The utmost good faith shall always be observed towards the Indians; their lands and property shall never be taken from them without their consent."
– Northwest Ordinance of 1787

Treaties like Fort Stanwix (1784) and Fort McIntosh (1785) were signed under coercion or deceit, leading to large land cessions for little compensation.

Jefferson's administration increased displacement policies, culminating in the Indian Removal Act of 1830.2

The U.S. government's treaty-making was driven by Manifest Destiny and expansionism, systematically eroding Native American sovereignty and way of life.

Jefferson's Policies and Native American Relations

Jefferson's approach to Native Americans mixed paternalism and expansionism. He believed Native Americans should adopt European practices, viewing this as "civilizing" them. This notion masked assimilation or removal if resisted.

Jefferson's policies supported expanding American territories. The 1807 Indian Trade and Intercourse Act encouraged Native Americans to exchange hunting grounds for farmland. The government often used debt to force land sales, extending credit for tools and supplies then seizing land when tribes couldn't repay.

The Louisiana Purchase fueled Jefferson's expansionist policies. He saw lands west of the Mississippi as potential homes for Eastern tribes refusing to assimilate, foreshadowing later forced migrations.

Despite public gestures of friendship, Jefferson's administration used military threats. In private letters, he endorsed forcing resistant tribes westward. The Cherokee Nation case exemplifies this approach:

  • Initially encouraged to adopt white farming practices
  • Later pressured to relocate as Georgia demanded their removal

Jefferson's legacy in Native American relations is mixed. While intellectually curious about Native cultures, his policies eroded those same cultures. His vision focused on subsuming or eliminating Native peoples rather than true integration.

Illustration of Jefferson observing Native Americans adopting European farming practices

Native American Resistance and Adaptation

Native American resistance against U.S. expansion took various forms. Leaders like Tecumseh sought to unite tribes against encroachment. His confederacy faced setbacks at the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811 and the Battle of the Thames in 1813, where Tecumseh died.

Chief Joseph of the Nez Perce led his people on a strategic retreat towards Canada during the Nez Perce War of 1877. Geronimo, the Apache leader, engaged in guerilla warfare against Mexican and American forces.

Some tribes adopted accommodation strategies. The Cherokee Nation:

  • Created a written constitution
  • Developed a written language
  • Adopted European-style agriculture

However, such efforts were undermined by policies like the Indian Removal Act of 1830.

The Pueblo Revolt of 1680 successfully expelled Spanish colonizers for over a decade. Leaders like Sitting Bull and Red Cloud defended their people's sovereignty, with victories like the Battle of the Little Bighorn in 1876.

"I will fight no more forever."1 – Chief Joseph

Native resistance included military confrontation, legal and diplomatic negotiations, and cultural preservation. While often ending in losses, these efforts demonstrate the resilience and strategic thinking of diverse tribes facing American expansion.

Portraits of Native American resistance leaders including Tecumseh, Chief Joseph, and Geronimo